The social construction of sexuality has changed over time and across cultures. In the Essay “The Historical Construction of Homosexuality” Estelle Freedman demonstrates that the historical construction of homosexuality in the United States has understood, practiced, and regulated sexual or romantic relations between members of the same gender since the colonial era. The purpose of Freeman’s essay is to illustrate how sexuality in general is shaped and reshaped historically through the interaction of economic and social contexts and the behaviours of individuals and social groups. Freedman exemplifies this through instances of the cross-gender berdache, romantic friendships, urban anonymous sex, long-time companions, Boston marriages, bar culture, and gay identity and political consciousness.
In the era of the European settlement, before the arrival of the Europeans, labelling of same sex desire was evident. Many Native American cultures incorporated a form of cross-gender identity and, in some cases, a form of same-sex marriage. Europeans called this cross-gender identity berdache, in which a man who felt his true identity was that of a woman could take on a female role and marry a man. In other tribes a women could also do this and marry a woman. The Europeans found the berdache to be barbaric and practiced much more inflexible gender roles. Reproduction was important to the settlers who came to North America due to scarcity of labourers.
As a result of the social and political instability in the 19th century, sex became less associated with reproduction and more important as a form of personal intimacy. Within the middle class, romantic friendships encouraged both spiritual and physical intimacy that might become sexual. The industrializing economy offered white, wage-earning men opportunities to explore sexuality outside marriage while the city provided anonymity for their actions. Working class women also found that adopting the identity of the opposite sex could expand their opportunities by adopting men’s clothing and passing as men in order to marry other women and earn wages.
Romantic friendship between same-sex companionships was an acceptable part of social life within the middle class. Women’s socialization, at home or in boarding schools, encouraged them to form bonds with other women. These youthful friendships often turned into lifelong relationships. The separation of sexuality and reproduction made Americans more conscious of the erotic element of these friendships. College education, and the ability to be self-supporting without marrying, encouraged women’s partnerships at the turn of the century. Many educated women engaged in “Boston Marriages” which referred to two women living together.
In the twentieth century, same-gender relations, moved from an underground world into greater public consciousness. World War II created new erotic opportunities that provoked the expression of a gay identity and the rapid growth of a gay subculture. Lesbian subcultures were integrated after a bar subculture spread and stabilized throughout the postwar era. With the expanding possibilities for gay men and lesbians, came the postwar fears that homosexuals were a threat to national security. As a result gays and lesbians started the stonewall riots in 1969 which started a major social movement and the liberation impulse took root across the country.
From the colonial era to stonewall riots, construction of homosexuality has come a long way. Through Freedman’s examples of the cross-gender berdache, romantic friendships, urban, anonymous sex, long-time companions, Boston marriages, bar culture, and gay identity and political consciousness, we can see how sexuality was shaped and reshaped historically. With the interaction of economic and social contexts and the behaviours of individuals and social groups, we can see how social construction of sexuality has changed over time and across cultures.
References
Freedman, E. B. (1995). The historical construction of homosexuality in the U.S. Socialist
Review, 25(1), 31-46.
